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http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/cabr4/.
http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/cabr4/contents.htm
Chapter One: Shadows of the Past at Cabrillo National Monument Introduction Chapter Two: Overview of Point Loma Prehistory Introduction Chapter Three: Overview Spanish and Mexican History of San Diego & Point Loma Introduction Introduction Chapter Five: Overview of Historical Military Architecture at Point Loma Introduction Chapter Six: Overview of Potential Underwater Archeology at Point Loma Introduction
Figure 1: Native Tribal Languages and Spanish Colonial Settlements, ca. AD 1800. Figure 2: Major Bache 1850's sketch of the Point Loma peninsula, northward from the Lighthouse location. Figure 3: Major Bache 1850's sketch of the Point Loma Lighthouse and Ballast Point anchorage area, southwestward view. Figure 4: Point Loma Lighthouse used for military housing, ca. 1917. Figure 5: 1953 Vertical View of southern Point Loma peninsula. Figure 6: Oblique Aerial View of Cabrillo National Monument early 1960s, looking northeast. Figure 7: Identified Civilian Historic Resources on Point Loma peninsula. Figure 8: Jay Wegter watercolor painting Fort Guijarros, aerial view. Figure 9: Jay Wegter watercolor painting Battle of San Diego Bay, 1803. Figure 10: Jay Wegter watercolor painting La Esplanada-gun deck view. Figure 11: Jay Wegter watercolor painting The Whaleboat. Figure 12: Chinese Bamboo-style rice bowl. Figure 13: Chinese Double Happiness-style rice bowl. Figure 14: Chinese cut abalone shell. Figure 15: Whaler's detonated bomb lance harpoon. Figure 16: Whaler's clay smoking pipe "George Washington President". Figure 17: Spanish 'Majolica' ceramic fragment — Aranama Tradition 1790-1835. Figure 18: Point Loma Military Reservation showing known historic military structures and key to inventory numbering systems. Figure 19: Army 115th Company uniform collar insignia. Figure 20: 1890 View of Fort San Diego, constructed in 1873-74. Figure 21: 1923 Aerial view of Ballast Point Lighthouse, whaling station and company warehouse with 1917-1919 Army Cantonment buildings. Figure 22: 1950 Oblique Aerial Photograph of Fort Rosecrans, looking westward. Figure 23: 1942 Naval Radio Station and Sound Laboratory and fuel oil facilities. Figure 24: Alice McDonald floundered offshore Point Loma 1891 Lighthouse.
For so many years, San Diegans and visitors from other countries have enjoyed the vistas, wonders of the seas, and the engaging human stories about Point Loma at Cabrillo National Monument, one of our Nation's earliest urban National Park System units. We are pleased to provide all visitors an opportunity to experience, enjoy, and reflect upon the dynamic natural and human landscapes of California's Pacific Coast and its importance to several nations — Spain, Portugal, Mexico and the United States. But visitors may only see and absorb a fraction of the historic human experience that has taken place here. This study makes available a more complete picture of the native Kumeyaay people who made Point Loma their home prior to European visits, of the subsequent Spanish Colonial presence, followed by citizens of the Republic of Mexico and American whalers, and finally by more than a century of United States military activity on these lands. From historical and archeological research, Dr. Roger Kelly and Mr. Ronald May have compiled data into an overview study so that visitors and staff alike may become more knowledgeable and understand the factors that make the national monument at Point Loma quite a unique place, indeed! SHADOWS OF THE PAST AT CABRILLO NATIONAL MONUMENT fulfills National Park Service policy and practice to make available overview summaries concerning park archeology, with history and architecture, for public understanding and enjoyment as well as park management purposes. Dr. Kelly has been Senior Archeologist for more than 25 years at the Park Service administrative office in Oakland, California and Mr. May, a native San Diegan, has been staff archeologist for the County of San Diego and United States Navy Submarine Base, Point Loma. We hope all readers will be able to learn about the significant archeological resources, not easily seen by visitors, which tell about human experiences at Point Loma over many years and centuries. We also hope that visitors will help us to be good stewards of our collective heritage here at Cabrillo National Monument. Have a good experience at your National Monument! Terry DiMattio
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Point Loma peninsula lands which compose Cabrillo National Monument as a portion of this striking landform have been the stage for human activities for at least three millennia. Native peoples resided in villages located along leeward shorelines of the peninsula and utilized environmental resources for gathering, hunting, and other purposes. Evidence of their use is still extant as documented archeological resources, sometimes covered but not obliterated by later construction and terrain alterations. Preservation and further research potential for these surviving Native American heritage resources is presented in detail. Spanish Colonial presence on the peninsula included a fortification with accompanying military structures constructed in the 1790s to protect the entrance to San Diego harbor. Archeological evidence of this historically significant structure exist on Navy managed lands at Ballast Point. Civilian land uses of the Point during the early 19th century included whaling operations, residential camps of ships' crews and Chinese workers. With the influx of military forces of the United States after the 1840s, Point Loma lands were dominated by strategic uses that continue into the 21st Century. A long chronological development of fortifications, support buildings, quarters, roadways, and buried infrastructure systems is preserved as sequences of military changes and adaptations to global events by three nations — Spain, Mexican Republic, and United States. Archeological resources including artifactual materials and the industrial values of now-obsolete construction methods exist in many places. American maritime history is represented by an 1850s lighthouse with supporting structures, now absent, as the first federally funded facility on the West Coast. Civilian land uses returned in the 1930s with the development of Cabrillo National Monument which preserves the original 1850s lighthouse, later military components which link Monument lands to other localities of military land uses, and public visitor facilities. This study includes inventory of archeological sites, potential locations for historic archeological resources relating to military land uses, potential underwater maritime archeological materials, and recommendations for additional research. The development of data about the archeology, history, architecture, and landscape characteristics of the peninsula and its monument are summarized, illustrations include historical views of Point Loma lands, maps plotting civilian and military historical resources, paintings of the Spanish-Mexican Era fortifications and 1803 naval engagement, and historical photographs of military establishments through time. Six Chapters contain specific texts addressing chronological themes with separate lists of references for each section.
CHAPTER
ONE: Introduction An uplifted, ridged arm of land, the Point Loma Peninsula provides a weather shield for a large shallow bay and extensive low-lying terrain east of the landform. Similar to several other bays of California's coast protected by peninsular landforms, Point Loma's ridgetop provides a lookout point for Pacific Ocean views as well as contrasting vistas of urban cityscapes against a backdrop of magnificent mountains. Cabrillo National Monument, a unit in the Nation's National Park System, occupies a prominent position on the headland as a loyal sentry, watching the changes of history and seasonal environments. Legacy from the Geological Past The monument is composed of about 160 acres of land ranging from tidal zones to about 460 feet above sea level, with brush-covered, eroded slopes and modern developments for military and public uses. The coastline is irregular with only small sand 'pocket' beaches along the western tidepool zone and bedrock seacliffs around remaining shorelines. Three geological formations compose this major promontory which was formed from 300-foot uplift motion along a major faultline. A basal Point Loma Formation is superimposed by the Cabrillo Formation of sandstones and conglomerates, and the visable, younger Bay Point Formation that forms marine terraces and uplands. Tilted and resistant, the Point Loma Formation was formed 70 to 80 million years ago from Cretaceous Period deep ocean deposits and extends from northern Baja California to about Carlsbad, California. Marine life fossils include mollusks, gastropods, and other invertebrates as well as shark, fish, and armored plant eating reptiles (Abbott 1999: 46). There are even preserved marine worm trails, burrows, and trackways on the mudstones, indicating ancient terrestrial life! Fossil discoveries have been made along the exposed Point Loma Formation sea cliffs of the peninsula and a few specimens were found within the monument's tidepool areas. Of particular interest is the 'ammonite' fossils of the Cephalopod group (squid, octopus and nautilus) which show tooth marks from the plant-eating 'mosasaur' reptile (Bergen, Clifford and Spear 1997: 57). The Cabrillo Formation has two characteristic beds: a thick layer of cobbles, gravels and boulder conglomerate and a sandstone layer. It does not contain as rich a fossil record as the Point Loma Formation but is of deep marine origin also (Abbott 1999: 40; Bergen, Clifford and Spear 1997: 55). Less resistant to the sea, the 66 to 70 million years old Cabrillo Formation is eroded into undercut seacliff caves and ledges. Forming coastal terraces on both sides of the peninsula, the Bay Point Formation supports coastal sage scrub, cacti and marine succulents, chaparral, oak and Torrey pines observed in early historic periods, and introduced vegetation. This Formation is composed of marine and non-marine sandstone beds but is not very old. The peninsula was an island during an interglacial period about 120,000 to 140,000 years ago but became connected to the mainland by westward growth of a delta and bay by the San Diego River less than 11,000 years ago (Abbott 1999: 213). Life on the Land Long ago, animals, birds, and sea life characteristic of the peninsula included land mammals, amphibians, fish and shellfish in the intertidal zone, and kelp-dwelling smaller fish. Invertebrates such as clams, oysters, scallops, and abalone still are visible. Except for lacking resources of fresh water springs, seeps, or open-flowing streams, the peninsula contains most elements for long term human occupation. Pedestrian access within this narrow landform would have been possible by routes along the higher ridgetops and down drier, south-facing slopes with less dense native vegetation to the coastal zones. A major change to Point Loma's appearance was the cutting of vegetation during the 19th century, particularly along the more sheltered east side, which would have resulted in expansion of chaparral and sage scrub communities. Dense clusters of oaks and Torrey pines were observed by early European explorers, giving the peninsula a very different appearance that today. From the 1500 acres composing the southern portion of Point Loma, a 640 acre Ecological Reserve has been established by federal agencies to protect the six identified plant communities and habitats which exist as isolated areas among historic and recent developments. Blessed with a mild climate, the peninsula is classified as a Mediterranean semi-arid steppe moderated by ocean influences such as fogs, winds, and rainfall during December to April, which averages 10.6 inches per year. Typical native plants are lemonade berry, madrone, toyon, cacti species, century plant, sage, supplemented by exotic plants such as ice plant, grasses, bottlebrush, and ivy. Establishment of the Monument This National Monument was established on October 14, 1913 by Presidential authorities in the 1906 'Antiquities Act' as a one-acre monument within military lands. Following a War Department reorganization, the parcel was transferred to Interior in 1933 and subsequently enlarged by Presidential proclamations (Knipper 1996, Lehmann 1987). Originally established to commemorate the first presence of Europeans on the West Coast — Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and his landing in 1542 — purposes of the monument now include preservation of the 1854 lighthouse, structures and facilities of WWI and WWII, viewscapes, whale-watching and natural resource habitats. Average annual public visitation is over a million persons! The lighthouse was the first of eight constructed for America's West Coast and is on the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark. Historic military structures and facilities within the monument are included within a listed National Register Historic District. Neighboring lands are Navy facilities, City of San Diego Wastewater Treatment Plant, and the Coast Guard Light Station built in 1891. Many Navy installations include former historic Army structures and land uses. A detailed administrative history discusses the unusual historical development of the monument as one of the first units in the National Park System to be established in proximity to an urban area (Lehmann 1987). Various planning documents also contain specific information, planning options, and historic architectural descriptions for the Old Point Loma Lighthouse (Holland and Law 1981; National Park Service 1996). Native Peoples of Point Loma Peninsula Native peoples of the San Diego area are speakers of Yuman languages and are collectively named 'Kumeyaay' today, although other names such as 'Diegueno', 'Kamia' or 'Ipai-Tipai' have been used also (Fig 1). Years ago, Kumeyaay territorial bands were groups of people living in specific areas related through patrilineal family lineages as well through mythical links. Among the 'Tipai' Kumeyaay — those south of the San Diego River toward the bay — two historic names for villages on the Point Loma peninsula are recorded. 'Totakamalan' was a settlement at Ballast Point while 'Pauipa' was located in the northeastern portion of the peninsula (Moriarity 1977: 130, Luomala 1978: 593: Pourade 1960: 10). Cabrillo's encounter in late September 1542, within the Bay he named 'San Miguel', was with people living nearby who interacted with the Spaniards in a defensive skirmish, with gestures describing other Spaniards fighting with native peoples toward the east. A few 'articles' were given to Tipai greeters but the encounter lasted only for short time periods over a three-day period (Cabrillo Monument Foundation 1999:64-65) From ancient times, maritime resources from the bay and coast supported a reasonable population, perhaps 5 to 7 persons per square mile for the coastal Kumeyaay (Shipek 1987: 12). As hunters and gatherers but residing in villages, the people had semi-sedentary residence practices and interacted with their mountain and desert-dwelling relatives through trade, marriage and kin connections. In modern times, Kumeyaay communities and their governments are located in twelve tribal reservations within San Diego County. Connections continue and many traditional practices, crafts, language and social relationships exist within the communities. Several Kumeyaay communities have very successful tribal casinos and other businesses. Historic Land Uses Point Loma Landscapes This grand but narrow landform was part of native Kumeyaay peoples' cultural landscape for residence along its sheltered eastern shoreline and food gathering from its western tidepools and wooded elevations. At prehistoric villages marked by mounded deposits of discarded shell middens and at named native historic settlements now known as La Playa and Roseville, the Kumeyaay utilized peninsular landscapes in specific areas as illustrated by archeological evidence and historical archives. Small, sparse and eroded scatters of shell middens, a discovery of one human burial within Fort Rosecrans in the 1960s, and an occasional isolated stone artifact indicate that the southern area of the peninsula was not intensively used by these people or by earlier indigenous groups. Stands of oaks, toyon, manzanita and lemonade berry did exist until the mid-19th century but were reduced significantly for local leather tanning operations, firewood and construction, or by terrain fires. Cattle grazing on the open peninsula lands would have also altered ground cover and caused animal trails. It is likely, but not documented, that the Spanish Fort Guijarros battery would have necessitated a lookout post on the ridgetop to monitor ships' passage. Richard Henry Dana describes the appearance of Point Loma in 1834 as follows: At sunset on the second day [from San Pedro harbor], we had a large and well-wooded headland directly before us, behind which lay the little harbour of San Diego. We were becalmed off this point all night; but the next morning, which was Saturday, the 14th of March, having a good breeze, we stood the point, and, hauling our wind, brought the little harbour, which is rather the outlet of a small river, right before us. Everyone was desirous to get a view of the new place. A chain of hills, beginning at the point (which was on our larboard [left] hand coming in, protected the harbour on the north and west, and ran off into the interior, as far as the eye could reach. On the other sides the land was low and green, but without trees. Potential Historical Archeology of Early Landscapes In the 1850s, the promontory was recognized for strategic values by the United States. The southern portion was made a military reservation by Presidential Executive Order in February 1852, followed by a smaller land reservation established for a lighthouse in September 1852. Probably following a previous trail from Ballast Point to the ridge top and southward, an 18-man crew hired by lighthouse construction contractors built an access road during April to May 1854. But it was a difficult road to use because of a series of steep switchbacks, crossing the ridges just west of Ballast Point toward the crest. This road is depicted in an 1855 drawing of Point Loma and its new lighthouse by Major Hartman Bache, Lighthouse Inspector for the West Coast (Fig. 2). At Bache's urging, the first road was replaced only two years later with straighter route, gradually rising from the La Playa settlement rather than Ballast Point, toward the narrow ridge top which it followed for 2 miles to the lighthouse. This new route cost $1,500 to construct (Holland and Law 1981: 44). This road to La Playa settlement served as the major access route well into the 20th century but was a steep climb and took as long as two hours by buggy or wagon. About 1855, Major Bache made a sketch of the treeless land, with its precipitous western edge and slightly eastward sloping terrain, looking northward along the peninsula from the approximate lighthouse location (Fig. 3). Shown in his sketch is Ballast Point anchorage with shoreline buildings in the distance, a section of the ridgetop road, and a small hill where the visitor center now stands. Early Specific Land Uses From the 1850s, the magnificent vista observable from the lighthouse area was attractive to local people. For a short period, whale spotters used the vantage point to identify whale pods, alerting hunters at the Ballast Point whaling station. In 1855, four Utah men were granted a 15 year lease by the San Diego Board of Supervisors "to open and work a Coal Mine" on Point Loma (Lockwood 1964). During 1856-57, the 'San Diego Coal Company' attempted to develop the coal veins but without success and the company leaders returned to Salt Lake City in November 1857. Although included within federal lands, the shaft of the "Mormon Coal Mine" remained open until 1960 when the location was developed for Atlas missile testing facilities, now used by the San Diego City Waste Water Treatment Plant. Excursions and visits to the lighthouse were made by San Diego citizens who drove buggies or wagons up the 1857 road for 'one of the most beautiful drives in the world, to those who enjoy the cool, bracing breezes' (see Law, Jackson and others 1993: 15). Some lighthouse families kept sheep, cattle and horses, and small garden plots near the buildings but by the 1870's, the vegetation along the ridge crest was '.... very meager, consisting of low, scrubby sagebrush', probably because of the impacts from livestock (see Law, Jackson and others 1993: 16). With abandonment of the 1854 lighthouse replaced by the lower facility completed in 1891, informal visitation continued but vandalism and unauthorized removal of outbuilding materials increased. Unsightly refuse such as broken glass and other trash became a concern of military officers. In 1903, a brush fire ignited by visitors took soldiers from Fort Rosecrans two days to suppress. By 1906, vandalism was mitigated by an exterior and interior whitewash coat and military families were housed in the lighthouse. In 1910, the entrance road received a decomposed granite gravel surface to improve it for military and visitors. In 1913, a commanding officer proposed repairing the building for use as a military radio facility. In the same year, President Wilson signed a proclamation designating one-half acre as the Cabrillo National Monument but military use of the structure and its locality continued (Law, Jackson and others 1993: 19). At this time, only the concrete rain catchment basin and cistern remained as related features (Fig.4). Along the western ocean terraces of the peninsula, a road leading to the lower Point Loma lighthouse was in place and shown on a 1904 USGS map. This road, later known as Gatchell Road, was improved during World War I when Army coastal searchlights and a powerhouse were built. Thus, the western portion of the monument became more intensively utilized and altered for coastal defense and for lighthouse operation. The current descending Cabrillo Road connecting main ridge road (State Route 209) to the coastal terraces was constructed after 1936. This portion of the park is accessible by trails along the coastal terraces to the tidepools but there are no good footpaths toward the peninsular ridge top. Along the eastern or bayside lands, to provide access to searchlight facilities, a bladed road — named Meyler Road, then Sylvester Road, and now Bayside Trail — was constructed in 1918-1919 by Army contractors. Originally, this road terminated at the 1920 Billy Goat Point base-end stations, but a trail connecting this location to Fort Rosecrans was widened later for vehicle use. Minor roadways from Sylvester Road to three 1920s coast artillery sighting points were visible during World War II when Battery Bluff was constructed. Aerial photographs from 1944 and 1953 show trails to Battery Bluff from Sylvester Road, and linking this road with the main crest paved road via secondary ridges where the visitor center now stands. Since the eastern portion of the monument is composed of steep ridges and deeply cut drainages, only one small beach, no tidepools, or watercraft landing spots, traversing this area prior to 1918 would have been difficult (Fig. 5). By the 1920s, the lighthouse was a military radio station and later, a tourist destination. In 1931, the lighthouse was "completely renovated, painted and repaired', prompting the local Army commander to state "Naturally, the army takes pride in the appearance of this historic structure...." (Law, Jackson and others 1993: 21). Informal visitor use continued into the 1930s. In 1933, a National Park Service official visited the location for the first time and recommended restoration of grounds and the structure. This official completed an inspection report in September 1934 which noted that the concrete watershed and two brick-lined cisterns had 'crumbled away' and the lighthouse was again in poor, unoccupied condition. Between 1935 and 1937, National Park Service architects supervised lighthouse historic restoration, park landscaping of surrounding grounds which included existing State-built stone retaining walls, and construction of a new garage with detached restroom. A concessionaire operated a 'tea room' in the lighthouse and attempted to furnish its rooms with historic artifacts. Later, a larger parking area was constructed from a natural flat area to the southwest from the lighthouse to ease vehicle traffic (Law, Jackson and others 1993: 29). By the 1940s, the appearance and land uses had greatly changed around this small developed public park with its historic building, surrounded by military facilities and functions. In 1941, wartime needs for security and strategic uses again changed the function of the lighthouse and its locality. A wooden observation tower and a two room concrete subterranean observation station were built a short distance south of the historic structure on the margins of the former parking area. Camouflage paint on the lighthouse substantially altered the appearance and character of the structure, then used as a Navy signal station. Construction of Battery Ashburn at this time resulted in piles of excavated earth and road paving materials on the entrance road (Law, Jackson and others 1993: 30). Following WWII, the monument was increased in size, and public programs expanded. Custodian Donald Robinson was appointed Superintendent in 1956 and the unit began to develop its own management directions. By the 1960s, its neighbors included various Navy program facilities and the City of San Diego's sewer treatment plant (Fig. 6). A one-story visitor center with administrative offices, auditorium, enclosed viewing and sales area and restrooms was dedicated in August 1966. By the 1980s, Park Service management plans, environmental analyses studies, an administrative history, historic structure report on the lighthouse, resources management plan, and specific cultural resources studies had been completed. Land uses, when considered as cumulative, include the original ridge crest road route with late 19th —early 20th century secondary roads to coast artillery emplacements and a coastal terrace lighthouse. By 1920, Gatchell and Meyler roads connected on eastern and western sides of the peninsula to military installations to the north of the monument area. Foot-trails can be seen in historic photos connecting some roadways to artillery base-end triangulation stations and to the 1942 Point Loma Battery with its clustered gun emplacements and bunkers. Alignments of security fences are visible on historic military photographs. Exotic vegetation species have been planted since the 1920s. Thus, sequences of large-scale ridgetop terrain alternations for major coastal batteries, roadways, parking lots and buried utility systems for military and civilian functions have resulted in discontinuous preserved areas of natural topography — slopes and coastal terraces — covered by native and introduced vegetation. Sparse historical artifactual resources around the lighthouse, at existing coast artillery emplacements of WWI and WWII, and isolated artifacts such metal or lumber relating to military activities remain today as historical archeological resources. Archeological Materials in Park Collections Archives, photographs, fine arts, historic objects and furnishings, natural history specimens, and archeological materials compose the monument's curatorial resources (See National Park Service 1999). Prehistoric artifacts are limited to three grinding rock slabs showing concave trough-like surfaces, worn by horizontal milling activities and five loaf-shaped handstones with convex worn surfaces, Regretfully, no provenience (place of origin) information is available for most objects. One handstone was found in 1964 near a documented prehistoric site along Gatchell Road by historian F. Ross Holland and archeologist Dr. Paul Ezell. One grinding slab and one handstone are on exhibit at the visitor center museum. Historical artifacts found during archeological work are more numerous but are limited to building materials such as sun-dried adobe bricks, baked flooring tile fragments and industrially manufactured fired clay bricks. During the 1991 lighthouse restoration project, one common red brick and one light-colored 'firebrick' were found in earthen fill near exterior northeast and southeast corners of the structure. The firebrick was stamped EXCELSIOR which indicates a manufacture by Pacific Clay Products of Los Angeles, between 1921 —1942 (Gurke 1987; 232). A reddish-orange brick stamped USMP was found during the archeological project at Battery Point Loma in 1984 but has not been identified as to manufacturer. Adobe brick fragments and floor tile fragments in the collection are enigmatic. A few are clearly from the Fort Guijarros area but were collected and placed in the monument's collections before Fort excavation projects were begun. One tile fragment is said to have been found during lighthouse tower restoration work in 1981. The use of square 'Spanish Tiles' in the lighthouse is strongly suggested by a comment from a Lighthouse Board inspector who was told in 1855 that the structure's basement floor was paved with '...tile from an old Mexican fort nearby'. This reuse of Fort Guijarros tiles was covered over by a concrete floor installed in 1880 (Holland and Law 1981: 116). The floor was lowered six inches during the 1930s restoration work, thus removing both the original 'tiles' and the 1880 concrete layer. Six examples of adobe bricks were collected from trenching operations in May 1982 southeast from the lighthouse. At a depth of 18 inches to 24 inches, about 15 adobe bricks were found with 'chicken wire' and unidentified bird feathers. Informal comparisons were made between these examples and others known from San Diego "Old Town" buildings and Fort Guijarros. Although there are no paleontological specimens in the collections, fossils of Cephalopod 'ammonite' group are known by some researchers to be embedded within the outcroppings of Point Loma Formation. With the exception of stone grinding slabs and handstones, no other Native American archeological or ethnographic artifacts are present in the monument collections. There are no materials conforming to the definitions of human remains, sacred objects, patrimony or funerary objects in the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Previous Archeological Research in the Point Loma Locality Between 1902 and 1920, three definite archeological resources on the Point Loma Peninsula were observed and recorded by pioneering University of California archeologists Nels C. Nelson and Howard O. Welty (see Kroeber 1925). One large shell 'midden' mound site (now labeled as SDi-48) was observed along the earlier northern shoreline of Ballast Point. Nelson described this 'refuse heap' as 400 feet long, at least 50 ft. wide and 5 ft. thick. Nelson noted that a battery of 'small guns' had been constructed on the mound as part of Fort Rosecrans' emplacements. Two prehistoric midden sites recorded by Nelson and Welty along the shoreline north of La Playa area were later investigated by Joan Jensen, then Chair of the History Department at California Western University, in the 1960s (Morairity 1977: 253-4). During the 1930s and 1950s, geographer George Carter visited many localities in the San Diego area, including Point Loma (1957: 272-277). Along the peninsular ridge top where erosion and roadways revealed open soil, Carter noted scatters of felsite flakes, small hearths ringed with cobbles, small patches of chione, pecten and oyster shells, but only sparse artifacts such as grinding tools, pottery fragments, or arrowpoints. These few cultural materials were seen along the ridgetop from military grant boundary southward toward the historic lighthouse. Paleontological materials in the form of a fragment of camelopus jaw fossil was found in the early 1940s within Fort Rosecrans (Hertlein and Grant 1944: 40). In 1962, a flexed burial of Native American human remains was discovered during road grading in Fort Rosecrans (Moriarity 1977: 255). Some shell fragments, a modified hand stone, and fragments of a large slab grinding stone were found with the remains which appeared to date between 5000-6000 years ago. Apparently, the human remains were left in place (see Overton 1986:208-209). In 1959, archeologist Claude Warren, then of the University of California at Los Angeles, conducted the first terrain survey of the Monument, at the request of F. Ross Holland, Park Service historian who had been stationed at the park from that year to 1964. Warren's one-day survey in December did not locate archeological resources and the field methodology was not described. Discoveries of peninsula off-shore underwater archeological or historical objects included recovery of isolated historic objects, building materials and faunal remains as scattered items along Ballast Point, recorded as site SDi-8897 (Pettus 1982). A small sandstone stone bowl mortar and a spherical stone artifact were found in 50 feet of water, due west of Old Point Loma Lighthouse, recorded as site Sdi-8669 (Hudson 1976). Terrain Assessment Surveys and Excavations In early 1975, Park Service temporary archeologist David S. Johnson conducted an archeological survey of about 50 acres newly added to the eastern side of the monument. Johnson's survey coverage included hiking traverses in a criss-cross pattern over the steep slopes and narrow coastal terraces. This project was completed in less than two days but did not include observations on military structures or features located in this area. The project was described on an Archeological Clearance format, issued by the Service's Western Archeological Center at Tucson as Clearance O89-CABR on January 29, 1975. In June 1975, Park Service Archeologist Roger Kelly conducted further terrain clearance surveys for proposed nature trails, including one using a former military road within eastern parcel, as an addendum to Clearance O89-CABR. Twelve debris 'dumps' to be removed were also visited which were separate, small piles of lumber and solid waste such as concrete building materials and metal objects. Further identification of these materials was not made. At this time, Superintendent Tucker and Park Service Regional Office Historic Preservation staff proposed preparation of a summary report regarding the monument's historic and prehistoric archeological resources. The services of Dr. James Moriarity, University of San Diego, were obtained through a purchase order to conduct field work and historical research during 1975-76, resulting in the completion of "Cabrillo National Monument; A Physical and Cultural Overview" in 1977. His synthesis utilized personal knowledge and professional work over many years in the San Diego area as well as expertise from other leading archeologists, historians, and military experts. Report chapters included specific environmental characteristics of the Peninsula, prehistoric cultural occupation of the San Diego Bay and Point Loma area, historical land uses and military occupation, and an inventory of physical cultural and historical resources. In 1976, Service Historical Architect Kenneth Keane visited the Monument to record historic military structures for the Service's 'List of Classified Structures', a nationwide initiative. He made field visits to most structures and produced architectual descriptions with photographs. Near some of the features in the eastern parcel, he photographed lumber and other materials possibly related to the WWII operations at this location which had been observed in 1975 by Kelly and Moriarity. In 1977, archeological terrain inspection for expansion of the Monument's Maintenance facility was done, based on Johnson and Moriarity's negative reports. In 1981, Archeological Clearance Number (072-81-CABR) was issued for ground-disturbing activities necessary for a Navy Erosion Control project along Gatchell Road, within the western portion of the Monument. Potential archeological resources visited and discussed by Moriarity for this area were field-checked by Archeologist Kelly. Also in 1981, a contractor under Park Service supervision conducted an historic preservation project at the historic lighthouse. During this work, concrete trough-shaped rain catchments installed in the late 1930s were revealed during exposure of below-grade exterior surfaces of the stone walls. Archeologist Roger Kelly, using information gained from a former Park Service employee who had retired to Trinidad, California, accomplished an investigation and revealing of these troughs. Since moisture levels in the Lighthouse basement had been a problem since the 1930s, documentation of these unexpected troughs was necessary. In early May, 1982, Navy contractors excavating a narrow utilities trench through the western edge of the Whale Overlook parking area, about 150 feet south of the lighthouse, revealed a row of about 15 adobe bricks at 18 to 24 inches depth below asphalt paving. This single course row was found with a deposit of white beach sand, only visible on one side of the machine-dug trench, and was monitored by Ranger Brett Jones. In addition, unexpected finding of pieces of 'chicken wire mesh' and 'chicken feathers' near the bricks make this discovery a mystery. Further, an older buried pipeline was encountered at about the same depth. While this area south of the lighthouse was the location of a large wooden observation tower and two concrete command bunkers during World War II. Later, in the 1960s, large quantities of fill earth from construction of the City of San Diego's Water Treatment Plan construction were used to enlarge the parking lot (see Fig 6). The adobe bricks were included in the park's museum collections. In 1983, Clearance Number 016-83-CABR was issued for installation of buried utilities by Navy contractors to supply Park Service maintenance facilities. In 1984, Clearance Number 007-84-CABR was issued for uncovering WWII gun emplacement (Point Loma Battery) for preventative maintenance. This Battery was constructed quickly in January 1942 as a four 155mm-gun emplacement, with accompanying gun crew facilities. In June and August of 1984, Youth Conservation Corps crews exposed most of one poured concrete circular ring upon which the WWI field cannon were positioned. After removal of the field guns, the battery rings were filled with local dirt in 1968 but natural erosion revealed some of the structure in 1981. Removal of this material did reveal wooden camouflage net frame fragments, burlap pieces, and 1945 Los Angeles newspaper pieces (see Jones and Overton 1984). In 1987, Clearance Number 070-CABR was performed to document 'no effect' upon cultural resources by a proposed widening project for Gatchell Road near the City of San Diego Waste Water facility. In November 1989, Brian Smith and Associates, an archeological consulting firm, conducted a field survey for the City of San Diego along the Gatchell Road to the Waste Water facility. A 'record search' was done at San Diego Museum of Man and the Information Center at San Diego State University. An Federal Antiquities Permit was issued for this activity (Smith and Associates 1989). Several prehistoric midden sites noted by Moriarity were revisited. In December 1990, Mooney and Associates also performed field survey along the Gatchell Road segment leading to the City Water facility. The following site numbers were assigned to ten historical and prehistoric archeological sites (SDi=San Diego County, number indicates unique site identification within the County): SDi 11,930 53x15m disturbed shell scatter, no visible artifacts In 1999, Archeologist Kelly performed a series of test excavations near the lighthouse in attempt to locate physical evidence of historic outbuildings. The activity was in support of the historic landscape restoration proposal of the General Management Plan. Ten small hand-dug test pits were excavated as assumed locations for outbuildings such as assistant lighthouse keepers quarters, privy, and picket fence line. No direct evidence of these structures was found but nature of the 1930s landscaping and plant irrigation pipes were encountered, as was natural bedrock in one unit. Other than 1930s water pipes, no artifacts were found. Any artifactural or structural evidence of former outbuildings seems to have been removed during the 1930s grade alternation and landscaping. In 2000, ASM Affiliates, a cultural resources consulting firm, was contracted by the City of San Diego to perform site evaluation studies at three archeological resources in or near a proposed curve widening project along Gatchell Road (see Reddy and others, 2000). Updated site information sheets for SDi-11,935, 11,936H, and 11,937 were completed by ASM Affiliates who suggested that sites SDi-11,935 and 11,937 were likely not eligible to the National Register of Historic Places. Site integrity and potential for information was apparently lacking due to erosion and impacts from Gatchell Road. Site SDi-11,936H documentation was updated with the recommendation of eligibility to the National Register for historical archeological resource values. The California State Historic Preservation Officer concurred with these recommendations on August 32, 2000. The Reddy report contains concise summaries of research design approach, field and analytical methods used, and detailed descriptions of three recorded sites, including the military structures and features at two locations. Formal "Primary Records" were completed for each site investigated and illustrated with photographs and site maps. A Federal Antiquities Permit was issued for this work. In August 2001, Archeologist Kelly conducted a re-survey of the ca. 50-acre east-side parcel to bring older terrain inspections up to current Park Service standards of site condition evaluation. Only archeological materials associated with historic military land uses were observed. illegal entry into one of the paired Billy Goat Point base end stations (on both monument and Navy lands) has resulted in vandalism. In 1993, one structure had been cleaned and secured against entry by the San Diego Urban Corps but the same structure has suffered vandalism since that project. A second station remains secured against entry. The 1942 Battery Bluff was recorded as an historical archeological site as well as an architectural resource. While two poured concrete gun emplacements are in fair in partially buried condition, wooden elements and a frame box structure have deteriorated since first photographic documentation in 1976. A few surface artifacts and a dug-out feature are other archeological resources. An oral historical account documents the military activities at this location during WWII (Overton 1986). Two 1920 base end stations were also visited by Kelly. Both may be entered through loose steel shutters. Their condition is good although 1995 graffiti is visible in one building. Fragments of window glass and milled lumber are scattered on slopes near these structures. These discarded materials seem to be post-WWII abandonment. About 150 feet southwest from the 'old Maintenance Building', a possible stone quarrying area was observed as an unnatural circular area in a south-facing slope, near the Park Service facility. Its nearness to the 1850s lighthouse may be coincidental, however. An earlier segment of the former 'Humpheys Road' was traced for several hundred feet paralleling the current roadway but at a lower contour line. Two poured concrete features were seen as features of this long-abandoned military roadway. Condition of Archeological Sites An intensive inventory and assessment of historical and archeological resources on Navy and Coast Guard lands at Point Loma indicated that about 25 prehistoric sites were visible in the early 1980s for professional documentation (see Rower and Roth 1982: Table 1). In addition, the eight recorded sites listed above within the monument and those prehistoric midden deposits located in recent years beneath modern military developments indicate a minimum number of places on the peninsula utilized by native peoples through time (see subsequent Chapters in this report). Researchers Rower and Roth noted that moderate to severe erosion and construction impacts are characteristics of all sites documented during their inventory project. The eight known prehistoric sites within the monument have sustained impacts from ocean exposure, run-off and sheet wash as well as road construction of Gatchell Road and earlier routes. All of these sites are located on ocean-facing slopes and coastal terraces of the monument's western area, indicating past cultural activities along a tide-pool near shore zone. Intensive terrain survey thoughout the monument has not revealed additional prehistoric archeological resources. Coverage by systematic archeological surveys may be said to cover 90% of current monument terrain. Two sites originally recorded by Brian Smith and Associates (SDi-11,935 and 11,937) were investigated by ASM Associates but were determined as not eligible to the National Register of Historic Places due to loss of integrity and scientific values. The remaining 6 prehistoric sites are in fair condition, protected somewhat by vegetation. Ground cover and native shrubs should be encouraged to reduce weathering and pedestrian travel near the fragile site surfaces. Two historic architectual and historical archeological sites (SDi-11,936 and 11,932) are of military origin and are in good condition as buried features, which reduces weathering. Site SDi-11,936 (Battery Point Loma) is a contributing property to the Historic District for historical archeological values at local and national levels. The Battery Bluff site (no trinomial number) is in fair condition but elements of that emplacement are in poor condition as noted. All monument archeological resources are included in the Park Service Archeological Sites Management Inventory System (ASMIS), a park systemwide automated database which includes 'poor, fair, and good' site condition definitions for prehistoric and historical archeological resources. References Abbott, Patrick L. Bergen, Frederick W., H.J. Clifford, S.G. Spear (D.M. Burns, editor) Cabrillo National Monument Foundation Carter, George Carey and Company Dana, Richard Henry Florence, Hank, Robbyn Jackson and others Flower, Douglas and Linda Roth Gurke, Karl Hertlein, U. S. Grant IV Holland, L. Ross and Henry Law Hudson, Dee Travis Jones, Brett and Howard Overton Joyce, Barry Alan Keniston Architects Knipper, Carol Kroeber, Alfred Lehmann, Susan Collins Lockwood, Herbert Luomala, Katharine Klenner, Patricia Moriarity, James R. III Michels, William National Park Service Overton, Howard B. Pettus, Roy Pourade, Richard F. Reddy, Seetha and others Shipek, Florence Thompson, Irwin and Howard Overton, eds. Urban Corps of San Diego
CHAPTER
TWO: Introduction This synthesis of relevant published and unpublished literature addresses the potential scientific value of prehistoric archaeological sites located on Point Loma, California. The synthesis includes several broad anthropological research questions that have received considerable attention already and to which future recovery data from Point Loma sites could contribute. By discussing progress to date and future research goals, integration of information recovered from Point Loma sites into these broad questions can demonstrate their potential eligibility to the National Register of Historic Places. Conversely, ineligibility to the National Register for certain resources will be discussed as well. Historical archaeological resource sites are also judged in a similar way, as noted in following sections. Laws and Regulations Use of this overview will have utility in assessing the potential eligibility of historic and prehistoric archaeology sites. Natural erosion, impacts by wild and domestic animals, and man made improvements detract from the matrix integrity. The focus of a land manager should be to assess degrees of integrity loss against the potential of the resource to support scientific questions and thus meet Criteria D of the National Site Preservation Act of 1966 (Title 36 Code of Federal Regulations, Section 60.6). Criteria A of the Act which identifies a site as an example of a significant theme or pattern of history, architecture, archaeology, engineering or culture for a locality, state or nation may also apply. Two other National Site Preservation Act criterion not likely to apply to prehistoric sites as evaluations are Criteria B which addresses associations with historically prominent persons and Criteria C which requires identification as work of a master, has high engineering distinction or possesses high artistic values. Some historical archaeological sites may also meet these criteria, however. Site integrity is also important to the automated archaeological database for the Park Service called the Archaeological Sites Management Inventory System (ASMIS). Academic Research Schools There have been several distinct academic 'schools' of research in San Diego that have focused on important research questions of their times. For example, early research by the San Diego Museum of Man attempted to develop cultural sequences that correlated to geologic chronology. Malcolm Rogers published, critiqued, and republished cultural sequences for the earliest to the most recent prehistoric people in Southern California. Rogers later adopted linguistic models to explain chronological tool and pottery sequence changes. In the 1950s and 1960s, the University of California at Los Angeles directed advanced students to the San Diego area to study potential environmental change during geological and cultural sequences. Carl Hubbs, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, contributed substantially to radioisotope and radiocarbon dating to study seawater temperature and marine species changes in those same chronological periods as ancient people occupied the region. San Diego State University, University of California at Riverside, and private contract archaeologists attempted to study cultural processes of change in the 1970s. Today, a wide variety of private, museum, and academic archaeologists are synthesizing these pioneering approaches to newly formed research questions. Paleogeography of the San Diego Coast Transformational effects such as rising sea levels, changing sea temperatures, world-wide sea and weather cycles and changes, and landform modification on populations of organisms are important to the understanding of the broader context of prehistory in the San Diego region. These transformational changes affected prehistoric people as they relocated occupation areas in response to changing shorelines and less reliable food sources. Population movements often brought groups of people together, where trade, exchange of ideas, marriage, and new political alliances further caused regional change. It is this broad context that provides the laboratory for scientific archaeological inquiry on Point Loma. Since the peninsula is an exposed, prominent ridged landform separating San Diego Bay from the Pacific Ocean, this land has been steadily eroded by rising sea levels and landslides which have severely eroded the coastline over many thousands of years. The shoreline of today is not the same observed by the first prehistoric people, who arrived at least 9,000 years ago. Many of their original camping and occupation sites have fallen into the ocean. This dynamic environment is recorded in clues such as artifacts, pollen, marine shell, food bones, diatom, phytolith, and blood residue found on tools in the surviving prehistoric sites. Archaeological Sites as Time Capsules In essence, each archaeological site is like a time capsule, composed of materials and artifacts relevant to the time in which the objects were deposited. As noted, gradual or sudden changes in sea temperature, rising seawater, and coastal landslides affected creation of those time capsules. Orientation of scientific data recovery from Point Loma sites should be planned to recover evidence relevant to those issues. This orientation needs to incorporate lessons learned from previous researchers with new data to arrive at long-term cumulative solutions. For example, since early radiocarbon dates were obtained on San Diego coastal sites, new radioisotope information has become available to indicate certain marine shellfish species populations substantially died-off during fluctuations in marine sea temperatures. Greater or lesser abundance of Chione clams, for example, would reflect such a change. If archaeologists only relied on Chione for radiocarbon dates they might misinterpret the occupation to fall within the time when the sea water temperature supported large populations of Chione. However, orienting a scientific investigation to obtain radiocarbon dates on Chione, Mytilus, animal bone, charcoal, and charred seeds would greatly improve the accuracy of dating the actual occupation of the site.
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TWO: RESEARCH DESIGN One purpose of this overview is to provide meaningful ways to evaluate the scientific data potential of the archaeology sites at Cabrillo National Monument within the broader research contexts under study by other researchers in the region. This includes a review of past research and current criticism. Each site — known or to be discovered — will need to be evaluated for the spatial and vertical site complexity with a method proposed for qualitative artifact or sample volumetric comparisons. Finally, there needs to be a definition of the physical and cultural parameters required to design an archaeological mitigation program or treatment plan to achieve conservation and to avoid impairment of archaeological resources. A research design supports positive resource management as expressed in park-wide documents such as a general management plan and implemented through required compliance steps for approval of management plans. The following research domains are divided by primary research issues, each with testable questions and potential archaeological data required to support sound scientific answers; I. THE INTRA AND INTER SITE PATTERNING QUESTION The first question posed to a field archaeologist after finding an archaeological site involves site size, integrity, and importance. These questions relate to how archaeologists link that site to broader patterns of prehistoric activities within a geographical region. A basic question is whether or not the site has patterns of artifact features that relate to behavioral activities. Is the site big enough and complex enough to contain kitchen, sleeping, tool repair or manufacture, or religious activities and are those features large enough to be linked to other sites in the Point Loma area? This theoretical overview will introduce interrelated problems of "inter-site" and "intra-site" patterning which form a physical basis for measuring quantity and quality of archaeological sites on the peninsula. From this physical basis, substantive research problems involving site composition can be addressed. Ethnographic analogy will be reviewed as potential evidence for site function interpretation. Research issues such as lithic technology, exchange and trade, subsistence and techno-economics, and ecological change with adaptation will then be presented on the physical basis of site structure. The primary assumption of intra-site pattern research is that prehistoric people's activities resulted in predictable patterns on the land. Those behaviors resulted in refuse that can be distinguished by sets of artifacts and features. James N. Hill demonstrated residential behaviors as distinct from non-residential behaviors in rooms within Broken K Pueblo (a prehistoric Arizona village site) which led Michael A. Schiffer to attribute functional tasks to refuse disposal patterns (Hill 1968; Schiffer 1976). Schiffer's concept of artifact type sets for functions led to important debate on the theoretical approach to intra- and inter-site pattern research. Michael A. Jochim proposed inter-site patterning within regional catchment systems (1976) that required field definition of base camps and activity areas. John Yellen observed a confusion of behaviors within site types, which he proposed as too many for useful prediction (1977). Perhaps influenced by Jochim, Lewis R. Binford refuted Yellen with ethnographic evidence of Eskimo hunting that correlated artifacts and features to base camps, seasonal, and special activity areas (1978:330-361; 1980:4-20; 1982:5-31). The result of this energetic debate in the late 1970s and early 1980s was to crystallize theoretical approaches to investigating spatial patterns of settlement within regional, as well as behavior correlated artifact patterns within individual sites. Geographic Site Typology Within San Diego County, regional studies of site types over large tracts of land have investigated a variety of correlated site types. Ronald V. May surveyed the Table Mountain area of the Peninsular Mountains, east of Point Loma, and quantified plant and geologic units with types of sites to test cognitive land use patterns among Late Prehistoric people (1980). Pat Welch re-examined the Table Mountain data to correlate data sets with base camps, lithic scatters, and quarry sites (1980). More recently, Brian K. Glenn and Richard L. Carrico have correlated sets of features and artifacts from coastal prehistoric sites, such as diverse densities of bone and shell in greasy middens, to base camps (1995). Bryan F. Byrd and Carol Serr have demonstrated specific artifact groups for resource procurement, processing, transport, and consumption found within inland sites between the Peninsular Mountains and Point Loma (1995). Artifactual Data Sets and Site Types Perhaps an even more stimulating research approach from the debates began with Robert Whallon's attempt to reconstruct tool kits within individual sites by functions (1973:16-34). James C. Bard and Colin I. Busby tested discrete living areas within sites by defining house floor features and testing within sites in the Hotchkiss Archaeological District in Contra Costa County (1978). John Craib empirically mapped flaked stone, ground stone, bone artifacts, beads, and pottery with SYMAP, a computer software program that diagrams high and low artifact concentrations on a flat field, and then used data to infer primary activity areas such as residence behaviors based on fire-altered rocks (FAR), religious, and ornamental objects (1982). Earlier, Ronald V. May, Stanley R. Berryman, and M. Jay Hatley correlated FAR ovens with residential camps near the coast of Del Mar (1976). The evidence mounted over time to suggest that intra-site artifact/feature functions within site structure defined inter-site behavioral function within a settlement system. Recently, researchers using large scale testing at Mill Creek in the Prado Basin of Riverside County have attempted to detect kitchen and residential areas by the presence of absence of FAR rock ovens (Grenda 1995). Donn R. Grenda has used magnetometers to detect underground fire hearths in an attempt to examine "male" versus "female" activity areas. A. Research Hypotheses 1. The archaeology sites on the Point Loma Peninsula exhibit artifact and feature correlations to landform, geological unit, and vegetation. 2. The artifact types and feature types at sites on the Point Loma Peninsula correlate to ethnographic or published hypothetical behaviors. 3. The individual sites contain definable data sets known to correlate to site types such as base camps, (also known as primary activity area) temporary camps, residential areas quarry sites, resource exploitation sites, and religious sites. 4. There is sufficient stratigraphic context in the sites to distinguish changes in intra site behavioral patterning. 5. The artifact types, quantities of artifacts, and features present in the sites are adequate to interpret variation in activity areas within individual sites. B. Data Requirements Testing of the archaeology sites on the Point Loma Peninsula should orient data recoveries to analyze spatial horizontal and vertical arrangements of artifact, ecofacts, and features against previously defined inter and intra-site patterns. 1. Inter-site Patterns. Analysis of the archaeological sites should examine the presence or absence of correlates to regional site types. Detection of inter-site functional types, the field survey, and test records should provide clues to prehistoric settlement systems on the Point Loma Peninsula. Base camps and residential sites should be identifiable by multiple house floors or living surfaces, FAR rock hearth features, variations in marine shell features, variations in food bone distribution, variations in cooking and butchering of food bone and dark midden soil. Seasonal camps, temporary camps, or small residential sites should be identified by single house floors or small living surfaces, one or two FAR rock hearths, shell and lithic reduction features, and midden soil with low frequencies of marine shell and food bone. Single activity areas or special activity areas should be identified as one or two features of marine shell, flaked stone, milling features and/or FAR hearths in shallow deposits. Assay, mine, or quarry areas should be identified as primary lithic reduction features with metavolcanic or quartzite cobbles assayed with less than ten cortex flakes removed. It would be anticipated that mine or quarry sites on the Point Loma Peninsula would exploit cobble beds in the reddish-orange Linda Vista Formation sandstone. Sacred areas should be identified as stacks of rocks, rock alignments, or burial features exposed on eroded Linda Vista Formation sandstone. Stacks of rocks and rock alignments should conform to ethnographic descriptions of Kumeyaay Sun solstice geoglyphs. 2. Intra-site Patterns. Analysis of archaeological sites should examine presence or absence of feature correlates to behavioral patterning within individual site structure. Defined as functional areas, dispersed features within buried midden, strata, or alluvium-masked sites should be detected by shovel tests, hand-excavated units, and mechanical investigation. Residential functions should manifest as house floors, FAR rock ovens, fire pits and ash lenses, artifact features, burials or religious features, clusters of ground bone or shell, clusters of flaked or ground stone, and clusters of marine shell or processed food bone in sufficient horizontal and vertical quantities to indicate multiple behaviors over time. Classic house pits have not been reported for the San Diego coastal sites, but post hole alignments and packed living surfaces coincident with high frequencies of flaked and FAR stone artifacts should reflect living areas. Specialized functions should exhibit artifact or feature data sets that are known to correlate to behaviors such as milling seeds, working wood or bone, cutting and shaping shell, cooking plant/shell/bone, mining, quarrying, assaying and limited stages of flaked stone working. Broken Tizon Brown Ware, Lower Colorado River Buff Ware, Salton Brown or Southwestern ceramic types should be anticipated in association with game trails and springs (Gross, Hildebrand and Schaefer 2000). Religious functions should exhibit artifact or feature data sets that are known to correlate to behaviors such as shrine observance, funeral, devotions, shamanistic decoration, and destruction of the property of the deceased. Personal amulets, such as arrow points, should be anticipated at the perimeter of sleeping areas. Red and black painted ceramic vessels should be correlated with sacred activities, such as feeding hawks for eagle dancing ceremonies. Since shell ornaments are scarce, concentrations of spire-lopped side-wall olivella beads, soapstone beads, abalone pendants, carved stone pendants, ground graphite and hematite should correlate to personal adornment and possible sacred activity areas.
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TWO: RESEARCH DESIGN II. THE INTER-SITE SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS RESEARCH QUESTION The next question of importance is whether or not the discovered site is meaningful in a broader prehistoric land use pattern. In other words, is the site a placement idiosyncrasy or did the prehistoric people follow a pattern for selecting that location to perform activities? To answer this question, the archaeologist needs to develop a comprehensive understanding of the status of research on the definition of Late Prehistoric settlement systems in the region. Review of the literature shows how local archaeologists believe early and later prehistoric groups had different strategies for creating sites. This requires understanding of the Archaic or Early Prehistoric which first occupied Point Loma over 9,000 years ago. Point Loma in Regional Settlement System Theory The basic theoretical premise for settlement system research on Point Loma is that large marine shell midden sites represent long periods of intense prehistoric occupation (Rogers 1929a, 1929b, 1938). It is the smaller sites with less complexity that force the issue of functional definition. Interest in site function as a research topic developed with paleo-environmental chronological reconstruction investigations by the University of California at Los Angeles during the 1960s (Warren, True, and Eudey 1961:1-105; Warren 1966, 1967:168-185; 1968:1-14). Rather than try to define site function, research focused on chronological explanation of climatic change (Warren and True 1961:246-338; Wallace 1962:172-180; Crabtree, Warren and True 1963:319-349; Warren and Pavesic 1963:411-438; Bright 1965:363-375; Moriarty and others 1959:553-556). The University of California at Los Angeles' approach to unlocking prehistoric settlement systems focused on holistic study of ancient geography. The role of human culture in this systemic process was interpreted as co-adaptation with other life forms (Aschmann, 1959:168-178; Arnold 1957:201-318). Clement Meighan and others introduced this approach in 1958 (Meighan, Pendergast, Swartz and Wissler 1958:1-23). Rainer Berger and other UCLA pioneers began correlating radiocarbon with prehistoric archaeology (Libby 1952:673-681; Suess 1954:467-473; Hubbs, Bien, and Suess 1960:197223; Hubbs, Bien and Suess 1962:204-238; Berger, Horney, and Libby 1964:999-1001). Coincident with the proliferation of marine shell middens, sea level changes hinted at climatic cycles (Shepard 1964:574-576). Reconstruction of Paleogeography Large and undisturbed prehistoric shell middens along the Baja California coast served as a testing ground for both UCLA and Scripps Institute of oceanography in pursuit of reconstruction of ancient geography (Aschmann 1959:1-23). Carl L. Hubbs focused on chemical studies of marine shell from midden sites to obtain oxygen-18 readings for temperature records (Hubbs 1958:10-22; 1959:43-47; 1961:201; 1964:143-186; 1965:30-36). The field sheet of November 30, 1951 notes 'Pleistocene clams' for possible dating by carbon-14 (Shor 1980:2-3), indicating Hubbs to rank among the pioneers in the use of radiocarbon dating. Three or four grueling days each month were devoted to driving from La Jolla to Punta Baja near El Rosario, Baja California, making 61 regular stops to record ocean temperatures by sturdy thermometers cast into the sea. Archaeological data contributed to reconstruction of Paleogeography. Hubbs explored all other facets of natural history — birds, succulents, and stranded cetaceans, fossils — or noted sites for later detailed study. He systematically gathered charcoal, artifacts, and shells from many middens, and Laura Hubbs watched especially for fragments of Cryptochiton, a specific molluscan indicator of cool temperatures (Shor 1980:3). Carl Hubbs expanded his research to include the UCLA team after a neighbor discovered a prehistoric human burial (Shumway, Hubbs and Moriarty 1961:1-32). Hubb's students coordinated with the UCLA teams working along the San Diego coastline in the early 1960s (Hubbs and Miller 1970:378-380). Jacqueline Miller followed Hubb's research using marine shell from prehistoric sites to reconstruct paleo-climate (Miller 1966:378-380). This classic study influenced Claude Warren and others to investigate cycles of drought and rainfall and the associated affects to geography (Warren, True, and Eudey 1961:1-105; Warren 1968:1-14). Scripps Institute of Oceanography investigations of coastal shell middens developed data to support the hypothesis that large shell middens of Baja California were created over long periods of time coincident with fluctuations in temperature and sea level. Hubbs' research at Punta Minitas revealed the following points: 1. Septifer bifurcatus is an indicator of warmer water than Mytilus californianus. The presence of Septifer bifurcatus could be an indicator of sea temperature change that might have implications for shellfish gathering pattern changes. 2. The giant owl limpet, Lottia giqantea, was a common species. 3. The gooseneck barnacle, Pollicipes polymerus, was common and a selected food species. The volume of broken specimens far exceeded Mytilus and could not have simply been broken to prepare other food species. 4. Tegula funebralis, were second in abundance to Mytilus, and a selected food source. It is an indicator of cool water. 5. Only the warm water Haliotis cracherodii species of abalone was present, but not in abundance throughout the midden. 6. No Cryptochiton stelleri were found in the midden; a cool water species. 7. Olivella biplicata is uncommon; ornamentation is suggested as the function of this shell. 8. The common littleneck clam, Protothaca staminea, represents 15% of the marine shell; it is a clam found near rocky reefs. 9. The drupe, Acanthina luaubris, and the pismo clam, Tivella stultorum, were found only in the historic mixed surface levels; the absence indicates a lack of prehistoric digging into the sand at low tides. 10. The presence of a few land snails, Micrarionta stearnsiana and Pupilla sterkiana indicate a moister climate in the 5000 to 7000 year time range. 11. Bones of mammals and fish were always less that 3% by weight of the total food remains except Mytilus and were comparatively absent in some levels. All fish otoliths were identified as white croaker, Genyonemus lineatus, a near shore fish. Weather and Temperature Cycles Scientists at UCLA and Scripps Institute of Oceanography began orienting Southern California archaeology research in additional directions besides chronology. To do this, they emphasized site correlation and structure to the cycles of moist and dry climates that emerged from the study of marine shell and radiocarbon dating. Research at CA-SDI-49 (between Rosecrans Street, White Road and Sylvester Road at Naval Base Point Loma) revealed high volumes of butchered marine mammal in a deposit dated approximately 4000 years ago (Gallegos and Kyle 1988). This discovery hinted at El Niño sea temperature warming as a factor in this unusual volume of marine mammals. Recently, work on the Channel Islands has substantiated this hypothesis by correlating warmer El Niño effects with sudden appearances of marine mammal remains (Colten and Arnold 1998: 679-701). Correlation of marine shell species and marine mammal volumes could further advance knowledge on the effects of sea temperature warming and food procurement change. An incorrect assumption by non-archaeologists holds that the shell middens of Baja California and San Diego were created at approximately the same time and for the same reasons. The cultural horizons named by Malcolm J. Rogers as Malpais and San Dieguito and La Jollan served as a framework against which the environmental changes could be understood (Rogers 1929a, 1929b: 454-467; 1938; 1945:157-198). The Paleogeography work of Carl Hubbs and Jacqueline Miller correlated with the radiocarbon dates demonstrated that the shell middens of San Diego began to develop at least 9,000 years ago, when the weather cycles and moisture regimes were quite different from today (Masters 1988; Gallegos 1985; 1987; 1991; Carrico, Cooley and Clevenger 1990). Cultural Identity of the Earliest People Research into the identity of the culture responsible for the coastal shell middens has focused on comparison of artifact and feature patterns with other regions of California. Although distinct dart points and metavolcanic flaked stone tools can be correlated to the San Dieguito Horizon at 9030±350 radiocarbon years ago at the C.W. Harris Site Archaeology District on the San Dieguito River, the majority of the early sites in the region date after 8500 radiocarbon years ago (Byrd and Serr 1993:9). This is consistent with Richard Norwood and Carol Walker's date of 8650±110 radiocarbon years ago and Roberta Greenwood's 8410 +/-190 radiocarbon year date at Diablo Canyon (1972:95; Norwood and Walker 1980:250). Although several hundred prehistoric sites exhibit the fine grained metavolcanic scraper planes, crescentic and eccentric shaped bifaces, elongated bifacial knives, and intricate leaf-shaped dart points such as those dated to 9000 years ago on the San Dieguito River, Julian Hayden and others believe the San Dieguito had departed the area (Hayden 1966; Kaldenberg and Bull 1975; Ezell 1987; Gallegos 1987). Clearly defined settlement systems developed in San Diego County and along the Baja California coast after 8500 years ago. The large shell middens that formed along the bluffs and shorelines remain rich in marine shell, splintered food bone, charred seeds and plant remains, crudely flaked cutting and chopping tools, and milling equipment (Rogers 1938; Warren; Davis 1976:2-4). William J. Wallace proposed a Milling Stone Horizon in Southern California at 8500 years ago. He proposed that people of this horizon migrated from eastern deserts (Wallace 1955:214-230; 1978:28). Malcolm J. Rogers had earlier labeled the people who introduced milling equipment and crude flaked stone tools as La Jollan (Rogers 1938). Claude Warren described the Encinitas Tradition as a distinctive regional milling variant about ten miles north of La Jolla Shores (Warren 1968:1-14). Emma Lou Davis tended to agree with Wallace that a Milling Archaic from the eastern deserts migrated to the Pacific Coast to form these localized variants (Davis 1968:15-19). There is a distinct possibility that milling tools recovered at the Harris Site (San Dieguito Type Site) might mark the introduction of milling equipment on the Pacific Coast between 9000 and 8500 years ago. The San Dieguito strata lack marine shell, but upper La Jolla strata are rich in both milling equipment and a dark gray shell midden. Greenwood reported finding milling equipment at the Diablo Canyon site, which she termed Diablo Canyon Focus of Early Milling Stone at 8400 years (Greenwood 1972:95). The coastal shell middens do not exhibit evolution of the milling equipment. The basin metate associated with hand-sized mano stones appears to have been created by a culture with prior knowledge of milling equipment. Wallace suggested that this originated from peoples from drying and desiccated desert lakes (Wallace 1978:28). Emma Lou Davis had examined Milling Archaic sites in the Panamint Dunes and believed Altithermal climatic conditions adversely impacted desert habitats and drove desert people to the California coast and down into Baja California (Davis 1968:1519). The UCLA archaeologists pursued the theme of desert cultures fanning west and southwest over the Peninsular Mountains and down the river drainages to the coast: . . . [who] brought with them a way of life adapted to areas where large game was scarce and where a greater dependence was placed on gathering of vegetable foods and hunting and trapping of small game. Such an economy was not readily adaptable to the ocean resources; however, it appears to have been easily adapted to the lagoons which wrinkled the coast line and supported abundant supplies of easily gathered shellfish (Warren, True, and Eudey 1961:28). Variation in local adaptation to each lagoon and associated terrace with nearby rivers should account for the technical distinctions reported as La Jollan and Encinitas (Rogers 1938; Warren 1968). Melting Glaciers, Sea Level Changes, and Changing Geography Point Loma prehistoric sites provide an important opportunity to study the effects of melting glaciers and the subsequent rising sea level on the Pacific Coast. Placed within the broader research context of oceanographic research, organic samples and faunal data can provide ecological sequence data linked to the sea level rise. The rising sea level and development of settlement systems with specialty site functions may also account for variations in the assemblages observed today. The La Jollan sites were named for a site at the La Jolla Beach and Tennis Club, which coincided with littoral zone marine resources. Artifacts recovered off shore demonstrate that the site was occupied before 6,000 years ago when the sea level elevated to its current location (Shepard 1964:574-576). Research into the paleo-geography of coastal California between 8500 and 6000 years ago should provide clues to the development of prehistoric settlement systems in the region. D.L. Inman has studied the effects of sea level change in response to valley cutting and sediment entrapment in bays (1983:1-49). J.R. Curray has plotted rapid sea level rise at 1-meter per century during the Flandrian transgression between 18,000 and 6,500 years ago, which has since slowed to 0.10 meter (1965:723-735). Patricia Masters has reported a fibrous root dated at 8270 +/500 years ago at the 10-fathom terrace which indicates the sea level has risen eighteen to twenty meters in the past 10,000 years (Masters 1988:4-8). Masters has suggested that the sea level has risen from the 10 fathom terrace or Santa Monica Shelf between 5000 and 7000 years ago, which correlates with the Mortar Shoreline proposed by Inman for the La Jolla Shores beach (Masters 1988:4-8). Wave action cut terraces which can now be seen at a depth of four to five meters off shore. The Mortar Shoreline is the underwater component to the La Jolla Type-Site. As the sea level rose during the Flandrian transgression, former channels were back-filled with fluvial sediments, which Masters has marked on a line drawing to demonstrate former coastlines (Masters 1988:4-14). San Diego Bay would have been a valley with marshy wetlands and Point Loma an inland mountain 10,000 years ago. The Point Loma River would have swept due south to a shore line about one mile distant. Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, the climate would have been cooler and wetter than today. Conifer forests would have been the dominant habitat, shifting to oak forests and scrub chaparral by 8,000 years ago. These changes coincided with eastern movements of populations from the deserts. The sea level rose five meters to flood the Point Loma River Valley, creating the San Diego Bay (Inman 1974:2.17). The natural shoreline one hundred years ago would have been the same as 6,000 years ago. The Tijuana and Sweetwater Rivers created a flushing system that maintained the tidal range and extended the salt-water mix far back in the bay. This enabled abundant marine life to exist throughout the bay. Settlement System Change Over Time Few scientific investigations of prehistoric sites around San Diego Bay exist to synthesize the changes in settlement systems over the past 9,000 years. Paul Ezell reported a date of 7,130 radiocarbon years for a shell midden near the Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery (Personal Communication to Ronald V. May 1981). Dennis Gallegos and Carolyn Kyle obtained a 7830±80 radiocarbon date for CA-SDI-48 at Ballast Point. These early dates may represent the arrival of Milling Archaic cultures to San Diego Bay. The distribution of prehistoric sites around San Diego Bay appears to have fluoresced over the next thousand years. Richard Carrico and Peter Ainsworth described a well-developed shell midden at CA-SDI-4360 at the south end of San Diego Bay, which dated to 6,095±415 radiocarbon years (Carrico and Ainsworth). During this period of initial occupation around San Diego Bay, mud and sand levees were forming at the opening of the Point Loma River (Masters 1988:4-20). Holocene aquifers at North Island and Coronado Heights on the Silver Strand channeled fresh water through gravel beds of drowned river channels, providing two good water sources for prehistoric people. Virtually nothing is known of the development of settlement systems around San Diego Bay between 7,000 and 4,500 years ago (Gallegos and Kyle 1988:4-21). Between 4,500 and 3,500 years ago, coastal erosion caused shoreline retreat. Coastal bluffs formed around Point Loma with avalanches and scouring of former river cobbles. Shoreline retreat included the disintegration of prehistoric archaeology sites along the former Point Loma River Valley, leaving only upland sites. The shell middens located around Point Loma may well have been considerably inland from the shoreline during occupation. Prehistoric populations shifted settlements to the upland areas in response to the shoreline retreat and changing habitats. Eddy currents shaped the Zuniga Shoal off North Island. Ballast Point separated a marsh habitat on the inside bay from a sand mudflat to the south. Although the Ballast Point shell midden dates as early as 7830 years ago, fourteen other radiocarbon dates indicate that the site was occupied primarily between 3510±90 and 1550±80 years ago (Gallegos & Kyle 1988:11-11). Exploitation at Ballast Point developed a diverse shark fishing industry quite distinct from other coastal sites in San Diego and Orange County to the north (Gallegos and Kyle: 8-8). Fish from Ballast Point were entirely rocky reef and kelp bed species. Although land mammals were present on Point Loma and North Island, the hunting emphasis shifted to adult sea mammals and sea birds (Gallegos and Kyle 1988:835). As stated earlier, this sea mammal hunting shift may correlate to El Niño sea temperature warming effects. Point Loma exhibits both shallow and deep rocky reefs associated with kelp beds and shallow water feather boa kelp. Fishing equipment reported by Gallegos and Kyle included bone gorges and composite bone fishhooks, but no shell hooks (Gallegos and Kyle 1988:8-46). Analysis of the Ballast Point shell midden at CA-SDI-48 demonstrates development of Milling Archaic marine exploitation of a wide spectrum of protein sources. Hunting of large marine mammals and rocky reef and shore species of fish and shell were concentrated in the post 3500 years ago stratum. Primary butchering in association with milled bone paste production reduced protein for soup and gruel meals. Very small bird and fish bones present in the midden indicate that the gruel included many species. El Niño Effects to Faunal Resources and Hunting Strategies Inman has proposed El Niño cycles of seawater temperature warming began around 1500 years ago) coincided with greater rainfall and intensification of river flooding (Inman et. al. 1986:50-52). El Niño cycles would have flushed San Diego Bay, destroying marine habitats and causing massive shellfish die off. Miller detected these cycles of die-off in four coastal lagoons (Miller 1966). Gallegos has proposed that Batiquitos Lagoon was so silted during those El Niño cycles that it did not provide support for prehistoric populations (Gallegos 1985). These cycles coincide with essential abandonment of CA-SDI-48 at Ballast Point. Recent work in the Channel Islands confirmed this scenario of ecological catastrophe and hunting adaptive change (Arnold 1992; Colten and Arnold 1998). Seawater warming affected the entire food chain, thus driving marine mammals into the shallows in search of food. The coincidence with die-off of shellfish and the appearance of marine mammals near shore would account for increased marine mammal bones in coastal sites in the past 1500 years. El Niño impacts to regional weather patterns probably stimulated population movements throughout the American Southwest, as well as the Pacific Coast. Hubbs and others from Scripps Institute of Oceanography studied weather pattern change through documented expansion of marine shell middens in Baja California south of Punta Minitas that span 1500 to 100 years ago (Moriarty 1980:4647). These sites include Arroyo Rosario, Colonio Guerrero, and North Coronado Island. To some extent, the rise of Baja California sites must have created opportunities for other marine species to thrive. A distinctive typology of inter-site settlement functions has not been published, nor has a typology linking sites to a changing ecology. Malcolm J. Rogers described Upland La Jollan sites at Torrey Pines that included cemeteries, FAR and shell features, cobble flaking stations, and isolated milling artifacts associated with marine shell. However, prior to 1500 years ago, the satellite camps do not appear to be well developed. As the marine resources declined coincident with the El Niño cycles, major population shifts inland marked diversification of site functions. The period of change between 1500 and 1000 years ago is poorly understood, as sites from that period are quite rare and few have been scientifically studied. Eastern Desert Migrations to the Pacific Coast East of the Peninsular Mountains, Hakataya or Patayan groups had developed settlement systems adapted to the Lower Colorado River and Lake Cahuilla (Schroeder 1957:176-178), which spread westward to San Diego Bay by the time Spanish explorers reached the area. A side tributary to the river filled a desert basin between 1000 and 500 years ago (Weide et. al. 1974). Populations around those habitats splintered off to explore and develop settlements up the canyons of the Peninsular Range (Rogers 1945:54; O'Connell 1971:180). Colorado Desert Hakataya, Pottery, and New Religious Practices Point Loma archaeology sites fall within a broader regional context associated with a westward movement of desert cultures during a long drought that spanned A.D. 1300 to A.D. 1600. People who intensively exploited western desert resources pressed west up mountain drainages toward the Pacific Coast. Cultural changes accompanied those population movements. The earliest documented contact between coastal Milling Archaic populations and Colorado Desert Hakataya is recorded by the earliest documented Tizon Brown Ware ceramics at CA-SDI-777, in the Peninsular Mountains east of Point Loma (May 1976:103-107). Above an Archaic human flexed burial, a charcoal-rich level separated a gravel layer with the Tizon Brown Ware and a human cremation. The charcoal dated 960±80 radiocarbon years ago, which places the arrival of pottery approximately the same time. Both Tizon Brown Ware and cremation practices are Hakataya culture traits more common to the Lower Colorado River area. The processes of Hakataya intrusion of Colorado Desert culture traits to the Peninsular Mountains and Point Loma coast is not clearly defined from current investigation of archaeological sites. Both pottery and human cremation practices appeared at different times between 1000 and 800 radiocarbon years ago. Yuman speaking ancestors of historic Ipay and Tipai people developed settlements along major drainages with specialized sites in upland geography over the past 1200 years (Kroeber 1925; Luomala 1978). Their earliest arrival on the coast remains unknown, but Tizon Brown Ware associated deposits radiocarbon dated at 660 years ago at CA-SDI-48 on Point Loma. Late Milling Horizon Settlement System Change Regional studies at Cuyamaca Rancho in the Peninsular Mountains documented a Late Milling Period settlement pattern with base camps surrounded by satellite stations (True 1970). A survey at Table Mountain, south of Cuyamaca Rancho, substantiated the pattern of base camps surrounded by satellites like spokes from the hub of a wheel (May 1975:1-25). The base camps included bedrock milling stations with complex mortar and basin features developed to process seeds and meats. Smaller satellite stations included small milling outcrops, flaked stone workshops, rock art, assaying and quarrying stations, trails, acorn granaries, hunting blinds, rock walled rooms, rock art, and rock walled alignments. The presence of Tizon Brown Ware and Lower Colorado River Buff Ware cer | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
